In 1984, there was a significant leak of methyl isocyanate gas from a chemical plant operated by a U.S. company named Union Carbide in Bhopal, India. We can use this information to establish historical environmental epidemiological facts. They include:
Determinants: Leak of a toxicant (i.e., methyl isocyanate gas) was the cause of the accident. The amount of gas, wind velocity, and wind direction were variables that influence disease levels
Distribution: The place was Bhopal, India. The population of the city was 850 K when the accident occurred on December 3, 1984. More than a half million residents were poisoned (Reuters Staff, 2020).
Morbidity: “Tens of thousands suffered from blindness and ulcers” (First Post, 2021). The actual rate of sickness within the population is still unclear.
Mortality: 3,800 – 5000 people were killed (Reuters Staff, 2020; Broughton, 2005).
Our MPH Concentration Competency for this week involves analyzing various risk management and risk communication approaches in relation to issues of environmental justice and equity.
Identify one environmental disaster that has occurred within the United States between the January 1, 2000 and the present day.
Example: A contract worker was killed on December 19, 2022 after an ammonia leak occurred at a Norwood, Massachusetts food plant. Using your textbook to understand the components of a risk assessment; in-brief (i.e., three sentences or less), please identify the following associated with the chosen disaster:
Hazard Identification
Ammonia is both a toxin and toxicant composed of “one-part nitrogen (N) and three parts hydrogen (H3)” (Agency for Toxic, 2015). This extremely toxic substance is most commonly used as a household cleaning product, within agriculture settings, and/or to create cosmetic products. “Ammonia toxicity occurs when the ammonia content in the blood supersedes the liver’s capacity to eliminate it; this could be a result of either overproduction such as in congenital hyperammonemia or under-elimination such as in liver cirrhosis” (Padappayil and Borger, 2019).
Dose-Response Relationship
Approximately, 174 million tons of this colorless, water-soluble gas (i.e., anhydrious ammonia) were produced globally in 2017 (Neghab et. al., 2019). The major routes of ammonia entry into humans include respiration, oral ingestion or dermal (skin) contact. A no-observed-adverse effect-level (NOAEL) of 250 mg/kg/day for general toxicity and a lowest-observed-adverse effect-level (LOAEL) of 750 mg/kg/day for general toxicity were reported for di-ammonium phosphate in rats dosed orally for 5 weeks” (Cosmetic Ingredient Review, 2017).
Exposure/Risk Assessment
Anhydrious ammonia is flammable, can causes severe skin burns/eye damage, and potentially toxic, if inhaled. As a solution, it is more of a respiratory irritant but can cause the same severe damages associated with the gaseous state. While not classified as hazardous, dilute aqueous forms (e.g., less than 0.6 M) can harm orbital structures or within cuts of the skin (Consortium of Local, 2022).
Risk Characterization
While exact exposure levels associated with the Norwood event were not published, the event was classified as a Tier 2 Haz-Mat incident. Tier thresholds within the United States for facilities vary by state and amount of hazardous chemicals (e.g., one or more 55-gallon drum, major leak with ignition risks, etc). The amount of gas associated with the Norwood incident resulted in the death of one individual and caused injury to others.
Risk Management
The safest risk management strategy for the food plant in Norwood would be to eliminate the use of all forms of ammonia. If elimination is not feasible, it is recommended that a safer substitute is sought. The company would also want to consider modifications of controls and work settings, revision of policies, and emphasizing proper use of personal protective equipment by everyone who is at risk of potential exposure.
In a written response, address the following:
Discuss in-detail the five factors that affect responses to a toxic chemical.
Rank each value in personal order of importance and provide a brief argument (i.e., no more than three sentences) for each position within your rank.
Support your answers with appropriate research and reasoning.
Optional:
Based on the findings within the risk assessment above, create a two-page document detailing present and future potential harms caused by the example provided or an environmental disaster of your choice. Within the two-page document:
Explain the social, political, and economic determinants of health associated with the chosen disaster
Discuss how these determinants of health have contributed to health and health inequities within the population affected.
Distinguish how the proposed risk management will work to ensure an equitable outcome (i.e., health equity) among and/or within the population affected.
References:
Consortium of Local Education Authorities for the Provision of Science Equipment. (2022). Student safety sheets – Ammonia (gas and solution). https://science.cleapss.org.uk/resource/sss030-ammonia-gas-and-solution.pdf.
Neghab, M., Mirzaei, A., Jalilian, H., Jahangiri, M., Zahedi, J., & Yousefinejad, S. (2019). Effects of Low-level Occupational Exposure to Ammonia on Hematological Parameters and Kidney Function. The international journal of occupational and environmental medicine, 10(2), 80–88. https://doi.org/10.15171/ijoem.2019.1527
Padappayil R.P. and Borger J. Ammonia Toxicity. (2019). In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2020 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK546677/.
Submission Details:
Support your work with examples and research. Your document should clarify your understanding of the topic. It should be your own work that is original and free from plagiarism.
Follow APA format for the writing style, spelling and grammar, and citation of sources.
