Somatotype is a highly disputed taxonomy developed in the 1940s by the American psychologist William Herbert Sheldon to categorize the human physique according to the relative contribution of three fundamental elements which he termed somatotypes, classified by him as ectomorphic, mesomorphic, and endomorphic. He created these terms borrowing from the three germ layers of embryonic development: The endoderm, (which develops into the digestive tract), the mesoderm, (which becomes muscle, heart, and blood vessels) and the ectoderm (which forms the skin and nervous system). Later variations of these categories, developed by his original research assistant Barbara Heath, and later by Lindsay Carter and Rob Rempel, are still in occasional academic use.
Constitutional psychology is a theory developed by Sheldon in the 1940s, which attempted to associate his somatotype classifications with human temperament types.The foundation of these ideas originated with Francis Galton and eugenics. Sheldon and Earnest Hooton were seen as leaders of a school of thought, popular in anthropology at the time, which held that the size and shape of a person’s body indicated intelligence, moral worth and future achievement.
In his 1954 book, Atlas of Men, Sheldon categorized all possible body types according to a scale ranging from 1 to 7 for each of the three somatotypes, where the pure endomorph is, the pure mesomorph and the pure ectomorph scores. From type number, an individual’s mental characteristics could supposedly be predicted. In a late version of a pseudoscientific thread within criminology in which criminality is claimed to be an innate characteristic that can be recognized through particular physiognomic markers (as in Cesare Lombroso’s theory of phrenology), Sheldon contended that criminals tended to be ‘mesomorphic’.The system of somatotyping is still in use in the field of physical education.
No two human bodies are exactly the same. Even though we all have the
same basic equipment, there are many subtle and sometimes not-so-subtle
differences. There have been many attempts to classify variations in hu-
man structure. One of these is somatotyping (body typing), first investi-
gated by W. H. Sheldon and documented in his Atlas of Men (1954). Shel-
don proposed three body types based on what he believed to be the
predominant type of tissue: ectomorph, mesomorph, and endomorph (see
Figure 15.1). According to Sheldon, the ectomorph has a predominance of
nerve tissue, the mesomorph has a predominance of connective tissue and
muscle, and the endomorph has a predominance of endocrine tissue. The
relative proportion of tissue and the relative efficiency of functioning vary
dramatically from one body type to another. In theory, these three somato-
types are separate and distinct, yet in practical application there is consid-
erable overlapping. One seldom finds an individual who is a true ecto-
morph, mesomorph, or endomorph in the theoretical sense. It is much
more common to find individuals who tend toward one body type but also
have some characteristics of the other body types.
Information on somatotypes is of interest to dancers because it has di-
rectimplications for understanding capacities and limitations. Each body
type has a proclivity for certain kinds of movement and certain movement
limitations. Understanding body type can guide and direct the dancer’s in-
dividual conditioning program. This information is certainly pertinent to
teachers of dance, for it can assist in setting realistic expectations and in-
dividualizing instruction.
The information in this chapter is divided into two sections. The first
discusses the shape, composition, and physiological functioning of the
three body types. The second discusses the movement potential and limi-
tations of the three types. Each tendency presents advantages and disad-
vantages, and an attempt is made to focus on both benefits and detri-
ments.
Shape, Composition, and Physiology
The ectomorph has a long, narrow, lean, lithe body with a fragile bone
structure. The hips tend to be wider than the shoulders, and excess weight.
will be carried in the hips and thighs. The bone tissue is actually less dense
and the long bones of the body are longer than the other two body types.
The ectomorph tends to mature late and (if a woman) experiences
menopause fairly early. The human skeletal system (particularly the long
bones) continues to grow approximately until puberty, and the ecto-
morph’s delayed puberty allows the long bones to continue to grow for a
longer period of time. The ectomorph tends to be “loosely strung to-
gether,” and this fact–combined with an inefficient muscular system–
leads to a tendency toward poor posture, but it also allows for greater mo-
bility and flexibility. The cardiovascular system of the ectomorph is not
efficient. Specifically, there is a tendency to low blood pressure, poor vagal
tone, high heart rate, and, generally, poor circulation. The blood bed is not
efficient in adapting to differing demands, and therefore accommodations
in vasodilation and vasoconstriction are slower than for the other two
body types. These factors related to the cardiovascular system of the ecto-
morph lead to a tendency toward cold hands and feet, dizziness on stand-
ing up quickly, and poor endurance. In contrast to the cardiovascular sys-
tem, the nervous system of the ectomorph is highly efficient. The
ectomorph is highly sensitive to stimuli, and the nervous system responds
rapidly. This higher sensitivity also means that the ectomorph is more sen-
sitive to pain than the other two body types. The neural sensitivity of the
ectomorph also promotes a high level of neuromuscular tension. The di-
gestive system is relatively inefficient. That is, the body does not absorb
nutrients as readily as the other two body types. This means that the ecto-
morph can eat like a horse and stay slim. But there is a disadvantage to
this: the low absorption rate makes the ectomorph susceptible to hypo-
glycemia (low blood sugar). The standard eating patterns in our culture
are not appropriate for the ectomorph. The long delay between meals al-
lows the blood sugar to drop too low. A much more effective eating pattern
for the ectomorph is to eat six or seven smaller meals, spaced evenly
houghout the day, The ectomorph also has a tendency to be anemic (low
emoglobin count in the blood), and to have low levels of adrenaline in
the bloodstream. The tendency to anemia contributes to the poor en-
drance of the ectomorph, because it is the hemoglobin that carries the
pogen necessary for resynthesis of lactic acid. Because of the narrowness
of the body of the ectomorph, there is less space for the viscera (internal
organs) and the belly tends to protrude, particularly after a large meal.
The mesomorph has a solid, square, muscled, athletic appearance. The
houlders tend to be broader than the hips, and the muscular system is
well developed, giving a general appearance of width. Maturity comes rela-
uvelyearly for the mesomorph. Mesomorphs tend to excel at sports at an
erlyage. The cardiovascular system and the muscular system are very effi-
dent. When active, the mesomorph has average-to-low blood pressure and
alow heart rate. However, with inactivity the blood pressure rises, as does
the heart rate. This makes the mesomorph prone to hypertensive heart dis-
aase in later life when the activity level is lower. Vasoconstriction and va-
sodilation adapt rapidly to changing demands, and performing quick shifts
in position seldom causes dizziness. Moreover, this efficiency of the meso-
morph’s circulatory system means that the mesomorph often can be out in
shirtsleeves when the ectomorph is bundled up in three sweaters. The
skeletal structure and connective tissue of the mesomorph are actually
denser than those of the other two body types. The mesomorph is sturdy
and tightly strung together. The strength of the musculature combined
with the tight connective tissue and a strong stretch reflex make it difficult
for the mesomorph to retain flexibility. On the other hand, the mesomorph
excels at activities involving strength and endurance because of the effi-
ciency of the muscular and cardiovascular systems. High levels of adrena-
line give the mesomorph a high energy level, but the mesomorph can usu-
ally relax more easily than the ectomorph. The mesomorph has the best
posture of the three body types because of the strength of the musculature
and the density of the connective tissue. The digestive system and metabo-
lism of the mesomorph are normal and, when active, the mesomorph can
eat fairly large amounts without gaining weight. However, with inactivity
the mesomorph must cut back on caloric intake. When the mesomorph
puts on weight, it tends to localize in the center of the bod; the classic
“beer belly” is a perfect example of this tendency.
The endormorph has a rounded body contour with excessive amounts of
fatty tissue. The shoulders tend to be slightly wider than the hips, but the
excess weight tends to mask that difference. The weight is more evenly
distributed than in the other two body types. Many of the physiological
functions of the endomorph fall between those of the ectomorph and the
mesomorph. The cardiovascular system and the muscular system are less
efficient than the mesomorph’s but more efficient than the ectomorph’s.
Posture also falls somewhere between that of the mesomorph and the ec-
tomorph, with the endomorph having fairly good posture. The level of
adrenaline is lower than in the mesomorph and higher than in the ecto-
morph. The endomorph is less flexible than the ectomorph, but more flex-
ible than the mesomorph. For these reasons, the endomorph has a natural
potential for strength, endurance, and flexibility. The endomorph defines
the extreme when it comes to absorption of nutrients and relaxation, with
a very efficient absorption of nutrients and an ability to relax totally at the
drop of a hat. The endomorph must constantly diet to maintain an ideal
weight because of the efficiency of the digestive system. This is often in-
tensified by a low thyroid level (hypothyroidism) and low metabolism.
Everything seems to be slowed down for the endomorph, including heart
rate, blood pressure (surprisingly, it is low), the onset of puberty, and the
onset of menopause. The endomorph is least sensitive to pain and other
stimuli, which certainly contributes to the ability to relax. The major prob-
lem for the endomorph is weight management, and the problem becomes
major if it is ignored. Overweight, ranging to obesity, is common for endo-
morphs.
Movement Capacities and Limitations
The ectomorph has a definite potential for quick, sudden movement facil-
itated by the efficiency of the nervous system and the mechanical relation-
ship between different parts of the skeletal system. The inefficiency of the
cardiovascular system, however, limits the duration of activity. Activities
that require strength, muscular endurance, or cardiorespiratory en-
durance can be difficult for the ectomorph. With training, the ectomorph
can improve in strength and endurance, but the levels achieved will not be
equal to those of mesomorph or the endormorph in the same training pro-
gram. Because high levels of neuromuscular tension are common in the
ectomorph, some form of relaxation training is also necessary. Strength,
endurance, and relaxation are the constant conditioning battles for the ec-
tomorph. One day off, and the effects start to show. The ectomorph can
maintain high levels of flexibility, however, with a minimum of effort.
The mesomorph excels at large, vigorous movements and can continue
over long periods of time. Strength, endurance, and power are definitely
capacities of the mesomorph. Compared with the amount of conditioning
needed by the ectomorph to achieve strength and endurance, the meso-
morph can maintain high levels of strength and endurance with a mini-
mum of training. The mesomorph’s Achilles’ heel is inflexibility. One day
away from stretching routines, and the mesomorph will show the effects.
The mesomorph must work just as hard for mobility as the ectomorph
works for strength and endurance.
The endomorph maintains strength, flexibility, and endurance rather
well. The problem for the endomorph is, of course, weight control. One
day without exercise, and the weight starts to climb. The best type of exer-
cise for weight control is thought to be endurance exercises which con-
tinue over a long period of time.
implications for dancers
Table 15.1 lists the information covered in this chapter regarding differ-
ences in capacities and limitations related to the three body types. A care-ful review of the table is encouraged. It may be helpful for the dancer to
think of acquaintances who roughly fit into each of the body types and
then think of the activities at which they excel.
This information is particularly helpful to mesomorphic dancers who
think they are “evil” because they can’t keep their hamstrings stretched, or
to ectomorphic “huffers and puffers” who can’t make it once across the
floor without breathing hard. There are physiological explanations for
these problems. They are not the punishment of the gods on wayward
dancers. Dancers are noted for comparing their own bodies with the bod-
ies of other dancers and measuring their abilities by looking at the abili-
ties of others. This is truly self-defeating because capacities and limita-
tions vary so remarkably. It is far better to focus attention on realistic
appraisal of one’s own capacities and limitations and work to maintain the
capacities and reduce the limitations. But dancers tend to do what they
excel at and what “feels good.” Survey a dance studio before class begins
and one will see mesomorphs jogging around the studio to warm up, and
ectomorphs stretching to warm up. The needs of these body types are ac-
tually reversed. The mesomorph should be stretching and the ectomorph
should be jogging if the focus is expansion of potential. Realizing that one
tends to warm up with the activities that one does well, the dancer should
balance the warm-up: something needed and something that feels good.
There are also some important implications for teachers of dance. What
happens to a mesomorphic student dancer who takes a class from an ecto-
morphic teacher? Very likely the student will never feel warmed up and he
or she will be demoralized (or injured) by the range of motion demanded
in the class. If we switch the roles and send an ectomorphic student to a
mesomorphic teacher, the student will be lucky to make it through class;
and if he or she goes to class “cold” there may be an injury, or the student
may constantly feel as if he or she is trying to “catch up.” Understanding
the natural tendencies of the different body types can do much to allow
for differences in a class and to facilitate individually needed growth. The
most horrendous words spoken by a teacher of dance are, “If I can do it,
you can do it.” Indeed that can be possible, but for the students who have
a dramatically different body type, the effort must be awesome. Teachers
should sometimes ask the impossible of students, but they ought to couple
the request with sufficient preliminary training and adequate encourage-
ment. Otherwise, the result is defeated students and a frustrated teacher.
Basic information about the capacities and limitations of the three body
types can guide the setting of realistic objectives. The information should
be used not as a “cop-out” but rather for realistic, honest appraisal of ca-
pacities and limitations.
