U.S. Foreign Relations: Late 1800’s–Early 1900’s Following the civil war, an era of US history known as the “Gilded Age” began.

Assignment Question

U.S. Foreign Relations: Late 1800’s–Early 1900’s Following the civil war, an era of US history known as the “Gilded Age” began. Characterized by significant technological advances in communication, mobility, and increased US involvement with foreign states, rapid “internationalization” occurred while the world, in turn, experienced rapid “Americanization.” (Simons et al., 2008, p.340) America’s hot and cold foreign relations with European powers was replicated in Asia and the Americas during this period, especially after the war of 1898, when the US assumed the role of benevolent supervisor of foreign territories formerly under Spanish rule. (Simons et al., 2008, p. 372) Additionally, the US economy continued to grow and flourish, due to the result of increased transoceanic travel, which effectively eliminated existing geographic boundaries that separated states. The amount of time for products to get to market was decreased with the invention of the steam ship and US “open door” policy broke trade barriers that the European powers had erected. Wealth accompanied economic growth, and as did the ability for US citizens to travel abroad. Missionary efforts greatly increased in the late 1800s by way of humanitarian works, evangelism or even efforts to restore Jewish people to Israel. But access to foreign lands also provided access to North American for immigrants, resulting in millions of foreigners with diverse cultures settling in the US. A cultural shift followed, with the US suddenly responsible for accommodating foreign cultures who brought with them diverse values and cultural connectedness to their native countries. Intercultural exchanges were frequent, even fomenting geopolitical crises, as in the case of the tensions created between the US and Britain over US weapons sales to Irish revolutionaries and dissidents. Chinese immigrant workers, brought to the US for railroad and canal projects, were blamed for creating intense cultural backlash when increasing numbers of Chinese refused to assimilate to US culture. Exclusionist policies against immigration resulted, causing even greater strain in foreign relations with the native countries of immigrants. This situation revealed the importance of immigration policy, as the cost/benefit ratio for “cheap labor” could become imbalanced. Politically, as the US expanded its engagement with the world, a shift from non-intervention and semi-isolation transitioned toward greater intervention and increased foreign entanglements, which George Washington (1813) had warned about in his farewell address. A greater international footprint following the War of 1898 presented US policymakers with associated challenges in newly acquired territories. War costs and projects in foreign lands, like the Panama Canal project, created political divisions between parties, not to mention conflicting interests between the US and other foreign powers. “Dollar Diplomacy” at the turn of the 20th century was a non-traditional method of engaging foreign states, yet President Taft experimented with the concept, occasionally leading to foreign relations debacles, especially in Latin America. (Herring, 2008, p.373) Controversial foreign interactions had political implications, as in the case of Columbia’s lost sovereignty resulting from bullyish policy measures during the Panama Canal negotiations. All in all, the US grew to be a formidable power in the international system during the Gilded Age, but significant foreign relations challenges accompanied growth. One aspect of American history that shaped Gilded Age policy was the tense trade relationship that existed between US administrations and European powers in the early years of the US republic. The mercantile system, which advantaged European empires, created an exclusive economic culture that penalized weaker states. In the late 1800s under Secretary of State Hay, foreign trade policy began to change, as reflected in the ‘Open Door Notes” circulars which essentially leveled the playing field for American trade in China. The Open Door Policy essentially urged great powers to allow free commerce in Asia, a break from traditional European trade policy. (Herring, 2009, p.331) A second aspect of American history that shaped policy was a labor related strain on society in the late 1800s. Industrialization’s darker side began to take its toll on the US, when the activities of robber barons like Carnegie and Vanderbilt prompted authors like Henry James to shed light on this class of aristocrats in works of fiction like The Golden Bowl. (Wilmarth, 2016) The cultural and societal backlash manifest itself with no less than 1400 strikes in 1894, alone, and other movements by laborers, ending with the deaths of numerous strikers who sought improvements in work environments. (Herring, 2008) This societal enigma exposed the significant cost that the environment of rapid industrialization could foist on US workers in the 1890s. Of course, the drive to manufacture more was driven by foreign demand for US products, partly driven by policies like Open Door policy of the Gilded Age. Thirdly, Britain’s naval power had been an important factor in both trade and military dominance throughout the advent and development of the US as a nation. Theodore Roosevelt’s foreign policy to build and display a mighty naval force throughout the world was learned through England’s example. Certainly, numerous events did prepare the US for global engagement in WWI. The US industrial complex and open trade allowed the US to profit from war. Events in Europe, leading to the war, also provided understand of how rapidly European powers can rise and fall. Fortunately, the barrier of an ocean most certainly enabled the US to avoid foreign entanglements through neutrality policy if administrations had the will implement it. References: Herring, George C. (2008). From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776 (Oxford History of the United States Book 12). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition. Washington, G. (1813). Washington’s farewell address to the people of the United States. Hartford, Conn. Hudson and Goodwin. Wilmarth, C. (2016). Henry James, the Robber Barons, and The Golden Bowl. The Henry James Review 37(1), 20-32. doi:10.1353/hjr.2016.0005

Assignment Answer

U.S. Foreign Relations in the Late 1800s and Early 1900s: Challenges and Transformations

Introduction

The late 19th and early 20th centuries marked a transformative period in U.S. foreign relations. This era, often referred to as the “Gilded Age,” witnessed significant technological advancements, economic growth, and increased engagement with foreign nations. This essay explores the dynamics of U.S. foreign relations during this period, examining the factors that shaped them, the challenges faced, and the policy shifts that occurred. Key aspects of this historical context include the U.S. trade relationship with European powers, labor-related tensions, and the influence of Britain’s naval power.

1. The Changing Landscape of U.S. Foreign Relations

1.1 The Gilded Age and Internationalization

The Gilded Age, a period that followed the American Civil War, was characterized by rapid industrialization and economic growth in the United States. It also saw significant advancements in communication and mobility, such as the invention of the steamship, which revolutionized transoceanic travel. This technological progress effectively eliminated geographical barriers that had previously separated nations and accelerated internationalization (Simons et al., 2008, p. 340).

As the U.S. expanded its global presence, it influenced and, in turn, was influenced by the world. This era witnessed a phenomenon often described as “Americanization,” where American culture, values, and economic interests began to play a dominant role on the international stage (Simons et al., 2008, p. 340).

1.2 U.S. Relations with European Powers

The United States’ foreign relations during this period were marked by both cooperation and tension with European powers. The U.S. engaged in a complex trade relationship with Europe, which had historically favored European empires through the mercantile system. However, under the leadership of Secretary of State John Hay, a shift in foreign trade policy occurred, as seen in the “Open Door Notes” circulars. These notes advocated for free commerce in Asia and aimed to level the economic playing field for American trade in China (Herring, 2009, p. 331).

This Open Door Policy represented a departure from traditional European trade policies and reflected the growing influence of the United States in global affairs. It was a significant step in establishing the U.S. as an economic power in the international arena.

2. Labor-Related Strains on Society

Another critical aspect of the Gilded Age was the societal impact of rapid industrialization. While economic growth was substantial, it came at a cost to U.S. workers. Robber barons like Andrew Carnegie and Cornelius Vanderbilt amassed immense wealth, leading to growing concerns about income inequality and labor conditions.

Authors such as Henry James shed light on this aristocratic class in works like “The Golden Bowl,” highlighting the disparities in wealth and societal tensions (Wilmarth, 2016). Laborers, facing harsh working conditions and long hours, organized strikes and labor movements to demand better treatment. The year 1894 alone witnessed over 1400 strikes, underscoring the widespread discontent among workers (Herring, 2008).

The labor-related strains on society were interconnected with U.S. foreign relations. The drive to manufacture more goods was driven by foreign demand for American products, which was partially facilitated by policies like the Open Door Policy. The economic growth generated by exports, however, did not always translate into improved conditions for American workers.

3. British Naval Power and Global Engagement

Britain’s naval power had a profound influence on U.S. foreign policy during the Gilded Age. The United States, under the leadership of President Theodore Roosevelt, recognized the importance of a powerful navy and sought to emulate Britain’s example. Roosevelt’s foreign policy aimed to build and display a formidable naval force globally (Simons et al., 2008, p. 340).

This emulation of Britain’s naval prowess played a significant role in preparing the United States for global engagement during World War I. The U.S. had a robust industrial complex and an open trade policy that allowed it to profit from the war. Events in Europe leading to the war also provided insights into the rapid rise and fall of European powers. The Atlantic Ocean acted as a protective barrier, enabling the United States to maintain a policy of neutrality when administrations had the will to implement it (Simons et al., 2008, p. 340).

4. Challenges and Controversies in U.S. Foreign Relations

4.1 “Dollar Diplomacy” in Latin America

The turn of the 20th century saw the emergence of “Dollar Diplomacy” as a non-traditional approach to U.S. foreign relations. President William Howard Taft experimented with this concept, using economic leverage to exert influence in foreign states. However, this approach often led to controversies, especially in Latin America (Herring, 2008, p. 373).

One notable example of the challenges posed by Dollar Diplomacy was the negotiations surrounding the Panama Canal. The United States’ pursuit of its interests in the construction of the canal resulted in a loss of sovereignty for Colombia. This incident highlighted the complexities and consequences of U.S. foreign policy decisions in the Gilded Age.

5. Conclusion

The Gilded Age was a transformative period in U.S. foreign relations, characterized by rapid technological advancements, economic growth, and increased global engagement. While the United States became a formidable power on the international stage, it faced significant challenges and controversies.

The changing landscape of foreign relations, influenced by technological innovation and economic growth, led to a shift in U.S. trade policies, such as the Open Door Policy in Asia. Labor-related strains on society, driven by industrialization, highlighted the social costs of economic progress and the interconnectedness of domestic and foreign affairs. Britain’s naval power served as a model for the United States as it prepared for global engagement, ultimately becoming a key player in World War I.

Throughout this period, the United States navigated a complex web of international relationships, resulting in both cooperation and conflicts with foreign powers. “Dollar Diplomacy” in Latin America demonstrated the challenges of non-traditional approaches to foreign policy. The lessons learned during the Gilded Age would continue to shape U.S. foreign relations in the years to come, laying the groundwork for the nation’s role as a global superpower.

References

Herring, G. C. (2008). From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776 (Oxford History of the United States Book 12). Oxford University Press.

Herring, G. C. (2009). From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776 (Oxford History of the United States Book 12). Oxford University Press.

Simons, A. J., May, E. R., & Adams, D. K. (2008). The United States in the World: A History of American Foreign Relations. Pearson.

Washington, G. (1813). Washington’s farewell address to the people of the United States. Hartford, Conn. Hudson and Goodwin.

Wilmarth, C. (2016). Henry James, the Robber Barons, and The Golden Bowl. The Henry James Review, 37(1), 20-32. doi:10.1353/hjr.2016.0005