The Importance of Bees 3.What are Neonicotinoids? 3.1Introduction 3.2 Systemic Insecticides: A Shift Away from Integrated Pest Management? 3.3Examples of Neonicotinoid Products 4.Routes of Neonicotinoid Exposure to Bees 5.Effects of Neonicotinoid Exposure on Bees 5.1Research Study Bias 5.2Honey Bees and Neonicotinoids 5.3Lethal Toxicity of Neonicotinoids 5.4Delayed Toxicity and Sublethal Effects 5.5Bumble bees and neonicotinoids 6.Neonicotinoid Residues 6.1Neonicotinoid Residue Levels in Plants 6.2Residue Levels From Neonicotinoid Application to Agricultural Crops 7.Rates of Application in Ornamental vs. Agricultural Settings 8.Case Study: Comparison Between Agricultural and Backyard Products 9.Recommendations for Protecting Bees 9.1Improving Pollinator Risk Assessment 9.2Research Recommendations 9.3Conclusions
