Ethics assess the situation/events of right and wrong, good and bad when relating to human interaction of any sort.

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Ethics assess the situation/events of right and wrong, good and bad when relating to human interaction of any sort. There are innumerable sets of ethical principles articulated to direct/guide the nursing practice. Disseminating the cores of ethical principles, the principle of Beneficence focuses on providing care that is good for the patients, the principle of Nonmaleficence focuses on providing harmless care to the patients, the principle of autonomy focuses on giving the rights of care to the patient to be in control of their lives, health, and bodies, and the principle of justice focuses on an equal and fair distribution of resources without prejudice (Melnyk & Fineout-Overholt, 2014). Historical Events That Influenced Ethical Codes and Regulations Like every other area of nursing practice and healthcare organizations, evidence-based practice arises ethical issues which have been depicted by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) and the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) on the ethical issues surrounding American healthcare system, as well as other countries. Significant progress on mitigating ethical issues in healthcare has been made, however, the emerging concerns of whether the practice is beneficent or just remains pressing (Melnyk & Fineout-Overholt, 2014). Due to violations of ethical human rights and inhuman conduct during clinical research, the development of ethical codes and regulations emerged which guide/direct the current practice in clinical research. One of the unethical events recorded was the Nazi experiments during World War II. This study was carried out by some German physicians who performed unconsented experiments on concentration camp prisoners. The prisoners were exposed to mustard gas with the objective of testing for possible antidotes. These inhumane acts were subjected to the prisoners (Sakchalathorn, .). After the end of World War II, the Nuremberg code was established in the year of 1947 following the Nuremberg trials. Ten elements of human research conduct released were voluntary informed consent, research must be beneficial to society, research should be based on prior animal work, avoidance of unnecessary physical and mental suffering and injury, no research yielding the result of death or disabling injury must be conducted, risks must be justified by the anticipated benefits, proper preparations and adequate environment must be provided to prevent injury, disability, or death, research must be conducted only by scientifically qualified professional, the subject is allowed to withdraw from the research at any time, if at any time during the study/experiment death or disability is depicted if continued, researchers must put an end to the study (Sakchalathorn, .). Another unethical event was the Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital study that was carried out in the year 1963 in Brooklyn, New York, United States. Twenty-two (22) elderly patients in the hospital were injected live cancer cells without their consent. Upon investigation, it was depicted that the hospitals research committee also had no knowledge of this study, and the primary physicians of these patients were neither consulted for the experiment (Sakchalathorn, .). In the year 1974, the United States Congress established the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. This led to the establishment of the Belmont Report and published in the year 1979. This report focuses on three principles. First, respect for persons individuals are autonomous and must be allowed to make the choices, and those with less autonomy must be provided with special protections. This principle yielded to informed consent and protection of vulnerable subjects. Second, beneficence any research must reflect this principle to do no harm that is, maximizing benefits from the research and mitigating risks to the subjects. Third, Justice equality must be reflected during the research conduct, this means that any burdens and benefits from the research will be distributed equally and fairly without prejudice (Sakchalathorn, .). Currently, the Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP) imposes severe penalties on healthcare organizations that fail to comply with the ethical codes and its regulations. It is therefore recommended to have Institutional Review Boards (IRB) review any clinical research articles intended to be published and comply with the existing ethical codes and regulations during the research study (Melnyk & Fineout-Overholt, 2014). References Melnyk, B., & Fineout-Overholt, E. (2014, August 20). Evidence-based practice in nursing & healthcare. A guide to best practice (3rd Ed.). Wolters Kluwer Health. Sakchalathorn, P. E. (.). Historical events behind current regulations. Clinical Research Associate. .com/history/Show more

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