Normally, when you connect two or more ideas in a sentence, or between sentences, or between paragraphs, there will be little “rough” spots between your ideas that impede coherency and understanding. Here are some techniques for smoothing out those rough spots:
1) Create repetition,
2) Create parallel structures, and
3) Create bridges, or “transitions,” between and within paragraphs and sentences that ease the reader through an essay’s ideas.
1) Creating repetition within a paragraph
Repeat a word or variations of it: I can never forget the year of the flood. That was the year I grew up. (Everyone agreed Adali Stevenson was intelligent. His intelligence, however, did not always endear him to the voters.)
Use pronouns (but avoid vague pronouns): People who have hypoglycemia usually need to be on a special diet. They should, at the very least, avoid eating sugar.
Use synonyms (different words with the same meaning): When you repot plants, be certain to use a high grade of potting soil. Plants need good rich dirt in order to thrive. (Even though the woman was handcuffed, she kept running around, waving her manacled hands in the air.)
Now you try
1) Select one paragraph and create repetition by repeating a word or variation of it.
2) In the same paragraph, try creating repetition through the use of a pronoun.
3) In the same paragraph, try creating repetition through the use of a synonym.
1A) Using repetition between paragraphs
Show a global connection: Link the first sentence of a new paragraph with the first sentence of the previous paragraph, as can be done by repeating or paraphrasing key words and phrases.
Example 1 (beginning of paragraph #1 and #2):
In fact, human offspring remain dependent on their parents longer than the young of any other species ….
Children are dependent on their parents or other adults not only for their physical survival but also for their initiation into the uniquely human knowledge that is collectively called culture ..
Use transitional words or phrases: Link by using transitional expressions. See list at the end of this assignment.
Example 1 (beginning of paragraph #1 and #2):
While the native American, in the character of Tonto, was more positively portrayed in The Lone Ranger, such a portrayal was more the exception than the norm……
Moreover, despite this brief glimpse of a native American as an ever loyal sidekick, Tonto was never accorded the same stature as the man with the white horse and silver bullets …
Use a transition sentence by alluding to the subject of the previous paragraph and the subject of the upcoming paragraph: Link the first sentence of a new paragraph by referring to the last sentence of the previous paragraph.
Example 1: Even though Hortense followed all of these useful suggestions, she still ran into an unforeseen problem. (In this example, the transition sentence tells us the previous paragraph lists useful suggestions, while the upcoming paragraph shows us an unforeseen problem.)
Example 2: Because of these results, the researchers decided to try a new experiment. (In this example, the transition sentence tells is the previous paragraph presents results, while the upcoming paragraph offers a new experiment.)
Now you try
1) Select two successive paragraphs. Create coherency between them by creating a global connection.
2) Select two different successive paragraphs. Create coherency between them by using a transitional word or phrase between them.
3) Select two different paragraphs. Create coherency by writing a transition sentence between them.
2) Create coherency by building parallel structures
Items in a series or list: All items in a series should be in a parallel form, including all nouns, all verbs, and all prepositional phrases.
Example using verbs: The quarter horse skipped, pranced, and sashayed onto the track.
Parallel structures can help you pair two ideas together.
Example using propositions: Writers are often more interesting on the page than they are in the flesh.
When you link ideas with conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet), try to make the ideas parallel in structure. And always use the same structure after both parts of a correlative conjunction: either … or, both … and, neither … nor, not … but, not only … but also, just as … so, and whether … or.
Now you try
1) Select a sentence with several nouns or verbs in sequence. Edit them so they have coherency by using the same form.
2) Select a sentence with two ideas, then create coherency by using a parallel sentence structure to hold each idea in the sentence.
3) Create coherency by using transition words or phrases
Transition words: Words that help a reader go from what they have just read to what they are about to read.
For flow between words or sentences, you should use transition words and phrases. But you should be careful to choose a transition word that is logically correct.
Example of two sentences needing better flow: “Spot is a good dog. He has fleas.”
In this example, there is no logical connection between these two sentences. The sentences are unrelated. What does Spot being good have to do with his fleas?
(Example from They Say, I Say, by Gerald Graff, Cathy Birkenstein, and Russel Durst, 2006. W. W. Norton & Co.)
Poorly chosen transition word: “Spot is a good dog. For example, he has fleas.”
Logically chosen transition word: “Spot is a good dog, but he has fleas.”
Logically chosen transition word: “Spot is a good dog, even though he has fleas.”
Examples of specific transition words and phrases
To show addition or make a point: and, also, besides, further, furthermore, finally, in addition, moreover, next, too, so too, first, second
Progression: first, second, third, furthermore
To emphasize: above all, indeed, in fact, in other words, most important
To give examples: for example, for instance, to illustrate, in fact, specifically, after all, as an illustration, to take a case in point
To elaborate: actually, by extension, in short, that is, in other words, to put it another way, to put it bluntly, to put it succinctly, ultimately
To compare: also, in the same manner, similarly, likewise, along the same lines, in the same way
To contrast: but, however, on the other hand, in contrast, nevertheless, still, even though, on the contrary, yet, although, instead, though, unfortunately, by contrast, conversely, despite the fact that, nonetheless, regardless, whereas, while yet
To summarize or conclude: in other words, in short, in summary, in conclusion, to sum up, that is, therefore, as a result, consequently, hence, in sum, thus, to summarize
To show time: after, as, before, next, during, later, finally, meanwhile, then, when, while, immediately, afterward, eventually, previously, already, often, since, now, usually
To show place, space, or direction: above, below, beyond, farther on, nearby, opposite, close, to the left, next to, across, from, inside, between, surrounding
To indicate logical relationship or cause and effect: if, so, therefore, consequently, thus, as a result, for this reason, since, accordingly, hence, then
To indicate concession: admittedly, although it is true, granted, naturally, of course, to be sure
Look at how Stephen Jay Gould in “Were Dinosaurs Dumb?” signals the transition of his ideas between words and sentences. (Transition words/phrases are in bold typeface.)
“I don’t wish to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of the large bodied “Stegosaurus” houses little brain from our subjective, top-heavy perspective, but I do wish to assert that we should not expect more of the beast. First of all, large animals have relatively smaller brains than related, small animals. The correlation of brain size with body size among kindred animals (all reptiles, all mammals, for example) is remarkably regular. As we move from small to large animals, from mice to elephants, or small lizards to Komodo dragons, brain size increases, but not so fast as body size. In other words, bodies grow faster than brains, and large animals have low ratios of brain weight to body weight. In fact, brains grow only about two-thirds as fast as bodies. Since we have no reason to believe that large animals are consistently stupider than their smaller relatives, we must conclude that large animals require relatively less brain to do as well as smaller animals. If we do not recognize this relationship, we are likely to underestimate the mental power of very large animals, dinosaurs in particular.”
Now you try
Select one paragraph in your essay and insert transition words and phrases whenever they will create a better sense of coherence, or flow.
